Archaeology in the Political Struggle over the Temple Mount / Haram al-Sharif
Introduction
Immediately after the 1967 War, then Israeli defense minister Moshe Dayan declared that the Islamic Waqf would retain their authority over the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif compound. This statement coupled by the fact that the Islamic Waqf continued to manage the compound was interpreted as Israel’s acquiescence to preserve the Haram al-Sharif’s unique historic significance as an Islamic holy site. Yet in practice, even prior to Dayan’s declaration, Israel had begun to put facts on the ground which contributed to a shift in the independent status of the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif particularly around the issue of access to the site.
Since 1967, the area surrounding the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif has seen continuous development and attempts to modify previous agreements. Activities that have affected the status quo which are most familiar to the public are the tunnel excavations, the renovations of al-Marwani Mosque (also called Solomon’s Stables) and the Mughrabi Ramp, but there have been other smaller-scale actions that have contributed to creating a new reality in and around the Temple Mount.
The Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif is not detached from the environment in which it is situated. Events in the Old City and in the village of Silwan are known to have a significant impact on tensions in the area and particularly on the situation at the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif. Emek Shaveh has discussed activities in the area around the Temple Mount in “From Silwan to the Temple Mount” (2013)[1] and “Jerusalem Underground” (2011).[2]
In the present document we will discuss the use of archaeological excavations, or excavations termed as archaeological, in the political struggle over the Temple Mount and its environs. Considering that any physical activity in the Old City and its surrounding area entails archaeological work (excavations, preservation, oversight etc.), it is only natural that this scientific discipline has been placed at the forefront of the political struggle.
Part 1 – The history of the site: How the Temple Mount became the Haram al- Sharif
The Haram al-Sharif site is a collection of magnificent buildings that exemplify the very best of local and lslamic architecture from the last thousand years. The significance of the site as a holy place in the Islamic tradition led to the construction of almost one-hundred buildings on the site, built between the 8th century CE and the 20thcentury. Apart from its religious significance, the precinct is a heritage site of international importance. This fact virtually goes unmentioned in the political and religious struggle over the precinct and has not been given due consideration.
Characteristics of the site and the religious traditions linked to it
The Temple Mount, or Haram al-Sharif in Arabic (meaning ‘the Noble Sanctuary’), is a 140 dunam area (45 acres) located in the south-eastern corner of the Old City. Today it is used as a prayer and study site for Muslims and includes some of the oldest religious structures in the country that are still standing. The Jewish tradition identifies the site as the place of Mount Moriah, where the patriarch Abraham went to sacrifice his son Isaac. The site is identified as the place where the Temple – last destroyed in 70 CE – once stood. The Muslim tradition identifies the site with the “Farthest Mosque” mentioned in the Quran in the beginning of Sura 17: “Glory to (Allah) Who did take His servant for a Journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the Farthest Mosque, whose precincts We did bless, in order that We might show him some of Our Signs: for He is the One Who heareth and seeth (all things).” Such is the description of the legendary journey by the Prophet Mohammed on his horse al-Buraq from Mecca to the “Farthest Mosque” whence the Prophet ascended to the heavens. The Dome of the Rock is associated with the site of the First Temple, ‘Solomon’s Temple,’ as it is referred to in Islam (‘Templum Salomonis’ as the Crusaders called it).
The holy precinct today
Scholars differ over the dating of the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif’s foundations. Most are of the opinion that at least the southern and western sections are ancient (from between the 1st century BCE to the 1st century CE). Other sections were added later, up until the Islamic period (7th century to 16th century CE). Nine gates lead up to the site. One of them, Sha’ar Harahamim or Baba al-Rahmeh (the Golden Gate), is sealed off. The Mount’s supporting walls feature two smaller gates that are not in use. Its southern wall features two additional sealed gates: the western section contains a double gate and the eastern section a triple arched gate (Hulda Gates). These sealed gates face the excavations of the Southern Wall.
The most well known structures on the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif are Al-Aqsa Mosque located in the south-western corner, and the Dome of the Rock located in the center of the premises. In addition, the site contains buildings used as religious educational institutions (madrasas), memorials (the Dome of the Rock is one of them), towers, purification structures (al-Kas) and more. Some of the structures were built in the early Islamic period, the 8th century CE, some were built by the Mamluks during the 14th – 15th century CE, and others during the Ottoman period (16th-20th centuries CE). Several structures feature columns or capitals which, judging by their style, can be dated to the Crusader or to the Roman-Byzantine periods.
The Dome of the Rock is a memorial which in the present-day functions as a mosque. It is one of the oldest standing Islamic structures in the world. Preserved in its original state, not having undergone substantial modifications, it is considered to be an artistic and architectural wonder and a cornerstone in the history of Islamic art and architecture. Surrounding the interior is an inscription describing the construction of the mosque in the year 691 CE, during the reign of the Caliph Abd al-Malik Ibn Marwan (685-705) of the Umayyad Dynasty. Historians date Al-Aqsa Mosque in the south of the precinct to the beginning of the 8th century CE, the time of Abd al-Malik, or to the period of his son’s reign, al-Walid I (705-715). The structure was rebuilt several times and last renovated in 1035 CE during the Fatimid Caliphate, following the earthquake of 1033 CE.
Of the many domes on the Temple Mount it is worth mentioning the Dome of the Ascension. Located north-west of the Dome of the Rock, it marks the spot associated with Mohammed’s ascension to the heavens. The structure is dated to the 12th century, although some scholars say it was built in the 8th century. Another memorial is the Dome of the Prophet, also located north of the Dome of the Rock and built in the 16th century by Mohammed Bey. Like the Dome of the Ascension, some date its initial construction to the 8th century. The Dome of the Chain is yet another and is located to the east of the Dome of the Rock, also apparently built in the 8th century by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik.[3]
Other religious buildings adorn the precinct beginning with the Ayyubid period (12th-13th century CE), such as the minarets at the Gate of Bani Ghanim and minarets from the Mamluk period (the 14th century). Other unique structures from the Mamluk period are the Summer Pulpit (Minbar al-Saif) and the ablution fountain (called al-Kas). One of the most impressive and unique structures on the Temple Mount is the Madrasa al-Ashrafiya. Built in the 15th century, it is an example of Mamluk architecture at its best.[4]
The history of the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif
The Temple Mount was never methodically excavated and most of our knowledge about its history comes from historical texts and an analysis of architectural styles.[5] The three monotheistic faiths identify the site as Solomon’s Temple from the 10th century BCE. Some scholars also identify the site as a place of ritual from Canaanite Jerusalem (18th-10th centuries BCE).
The most distinct antiquity linking the site with the Second Temple is the Western Wall dating to the end of the 1st century BCE or the beginning of the 1st century CE. It is one of the walls built to support the Temple plaza above it.[6] Archaeological excavations conducted to the south and west of the Temple Mount uncovered remains of capitals, ornaments and inscriptions which attest to the importance of the site during the early Roman period – the time of Second Temple. The archaeological finds from these excavations, including the rock with the inscription “To the Trumpeting Place,” reinforce traditions that associate the Temple Mount with the site of the Second Temple.[7] It appears that part of the precinct was built in that period; however scholars are divided over the dating of the gates. Some scholars date the Southern Wall and the Huldah Gates to the Second Temple period, while others date several gates in the Southern Wall to the 8th century CE, the Umayyad period.[8]
Scholars are also divided over the question of what was built atop of the Temple Mount after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. The assumption is that in the 2nd century CE a pagan Roman temple was built under orders by the Emperor Hadrian. This temple was most probably destroyed in the beginning of the Byzantine period (the 4th century CE), and the precinct remained abandoned until the beginning of the early Islamic period in the 7th century.[9]
At the end of the 7th century, as the Umayyad regime grew strong, the Temple Mount was developed as an Islamic prayer site. In addition to the construction of memorial structures and Al-Aqsa Mosque, the Umayyad regime encouraged pilgrimage to Jerusalem – most probably in an effort to prevent or lessen pilgrimage to Mecca – and in so doing enhanced the importance of the Haram al-Sharif in Islam.[10] At the end of the Umayyad period (the middle of the 8th century) Jerusalem’s political importance in Islam diminished. Pilgrimage to the Temple Mount did not cease until the Crusader period (end of the 11th century CE).
Unlike the Byzantine Christians who turned the Temple Mount into a rubbish heap, the Crusaders continued to observe the sanctity of the site and to safeguard it. During the Crusader period, Al-Aqsa mosque was converted into a Church, as was the Dome of the Rock. The Crusaders gave the south-eastern section the name “Solomon’s Stables.” Following the Crusaders’ defeat in the year 1187, the Muslims returned to the Temple Mount. From the Ayyubid period onward, the Muslims highlighted the sanctity of the site in response to Christian dominion over Jerusalem in general and the Temple Mount in particular during the preceding period. During the Mamluk period (13th-16th centuries CE), Jerusalem did not serve as a financial or administrative center but its religious significance grew stronger. Most of the structures on the Temple Mount that are still intact were built during this period, and the construction in the area surrounding the Mount is also attributed to the Mamluk rulers. The Ottoman period (16th-20th centuries CE) saw the construction of religious monuments on the Temple Mount and its environs, and in Jerusalem many Islamic endowments transferred their income to the Haram al-Sharif.[11]
Part II – Archaeology and the Political Struggle over the Haram al-Sharif/Temple Mount: from 1967 to the Present Day
Changes in Access Policies to the Temple Mount
Between the start of the 1st century CE until the end of the 19th century the Temple Mount had been off-limits to various populations. During Roman and Byzantine times Jews were prohibited from ascending the Mount. From the 7th century onward, with the exception of the Crusader period (12th century), the Temple Mount was closed to non-Muslims. This policy changed only in 1885, when only high-ranking Christian visitors were permitted to enter the site. Another shift in policy took place during the British Mandate period, when non-Muslims were granted permission to ascend the Mount for a fee. Following the Six Day War (1967), it was decided to continue the British Mandate policy of maintaining the autonomy of the Islamic Waqf on the Mount. Today non-Muslims are permitted to ascend the Mount only through the Mughrabi Gate. Orthodox Judaism, including the Chief Rabbinate, opposes Jews’ ascension to the Temple Mount for religious reasons, out of concern that Jews might step on the site of the Holy of Holies (which no person was allowed to access during the Temple periods apart from the High Priest on the Day of Atonement). Today the exact site of the Holy of Holies on the Temple Mount remains unknown. Since the Second Intifada (2001-2005), the Waqf decided to prohibit non-Muslim visitors from entering the mosques (Al-Aqsa and the Dome of the Rock).
Changes in the precinct: from 1967 to the opening of the Western Wall Tunnels in 1996
Following the Six Day War, the State of Israel began a process of transforming the area west of the Western Wall and south of the Temple Mount. As a first step, the Mughrabi neighborhood that abutted the wall was completely demolished on the evening of the 8th of July 1967, two days after the war ended. The neighborhood, first built in the 13th century, was completely erased apart from several houses on the western edge, and the area was transformed into the Western Wall prayer plaza.[12] UNESCO criticized the destruction of the neighborhood, which had included some of the most ancient and important Islamic structures in Jerusalem (al-Buraq Mosque, the Madrasa al-Afdaliya and others), and had played an important part in the history of the Old City and in defining the connection between the Maghreb and Jerusalem.
Israel’s consent to leaving the Waqf with the responsibility for managing the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif came with a few significant modifications. The Madrasa al-Tankiziya (the ‘Mahkamah’) building, which overlooks the Temple Mount and is located near the Chain Gate, was turned over to the Israeli authorities as were the keys to the Mughrabi Gate.[13] Israel’s demand to be in control of the Mughrabi Gate was initially rejected by the Islamic Waqf, which claimed that responsibility for the gates cannot be separated from the responsibility for the premises as a whole. Following negotiations and pressure placed by the Israeli authorities, responsibility for the Mughrabi Gate was transferred to the Israeli police. These decisions, coupled with the declaration that the sacred precinct is “an open public space” to which access is free, have been the basis for the physical and administrative changes in the status of the Temple Mount and its surrounding area.[14]
Archaeology has also played a major role in changing the status of the area. In 1968, an archaeological excavation was initiated to the south of the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif. Conducted by the Hebrew University, it was one of the first in a series of excavations intended to transform the Jewish Quarter and the Mughrabi neighborhood into Israeli areas. The excavations yielded remains from various periods in the history of Jerusalem including burial sites from the Abbasid period, structures from the Umayyad period, and remains from Byzantine and Roman times. In addition, remains and facilities dated to the Second Temple/ early Roman period were discovered.[15] The excavation area has been preserved as an archaeological park to the present day. Visitors must pay a fee to enter the area through the Davidson Center.
In 1969 excavations in tunnels, today termed the “Western Wall Tunnels,” had begun, extending from the Western Wall plaza towards the north and along the wall which surrounds the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif. The digs carried out by the Ministry of Religion were not conducted as scientific excavations and lacked appropriate archaeological oversight.[16] They created a new underground surface area around the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif; even then they were perceived as a threat to Muslim rights over the Temple Mount.
One of the most heightened moments of tension during these excavations, which to a certain degree confirmed Muslim concerns that the digs extended under the Temple Mount, occurred in 1981: Workers on behalf of the Western Wall administration dug a tunnel in an area called “Warren’s Gate” in the direction of the Temple Mount itself. Conflict ensued between representatives of the Islamic Waqf and the administration of the Western Wall. The Israeli authorities ordered the gate sealed with cement. Criticism of the changes Israel had introduced in the area surrounding the Temple Mount was one of the reasons UNESCO decided to declare Jerusalem as a World Heritage Site in Danger in 1982.[17]
Another significant change in the status of the Temple Mount followed the signing of the peace treaty between Israel and Jordan in 1994, when it was stated that a permanent peace agreement between Israel and the Palestinians would take into account Jordanian interests and historical responsibility for the holy sites. In practice, Jordan continues to pay the salaries of the Waqf employees, and is the central authority with whom Israel negotiates all things concerning the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif.
Israeli excavations and destruction of built-up areas since 1967 in the area around the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif have completely transformed the landscape of the Old City. From densely built Palestinian neighborhoods reaching the walls of the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif, the area has been converted into a non-residential area, part of which (the Western Wall plaza) serves as a place for prayer, part of which is an archaeological park and is known as the “southern wall excavations” (the Davidson Center), and large parts of which have been excavated underground creating historical attractions that strengthen the connection between Jews and the Temple. Israeli activity has drawn massive Israeli presence to these places, and tensions at the Temple Mount and its immediate environs have increased. The gates of the Haram al-Sharif were the last line of defense for the Waqf who struggled to maintain its status on the Mount, a struggle that is still ongoing. Tensions and concerns over Israel’s suffocation of the Mount reached new heights in 1996 with the opening the Western Wall Tunnels.
The events of 1996: renovations of Al-Marwani Mosque/“Solomon’s Stables” and the destruction of antiquities on the Temple Mount
In 1996, following the inauguration of the Western Wall Tunnels extending towards the Via Dolorosa, riots broke out in which tens of Israelis and Palestinians lost their lives. The riots damaged the cooperation between the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) and the Waqf. Representatives of the IAA confess that since the beginning of 1996 it has been difficult to implement archaeological oversight over the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif.[18] At the same time, works had begun by the Islamic Waqf on Al-Marwani Mosque to build a prayer area underneath the platform in the south-eastern section of the precinct, east of Al-Aqsa Mosque.[19] The renovation works on Al-Marwani Mosque were conducted using heavy machinery that caused significant damage to antiquities. Many tons of earth removed from the site were dumped into the Kidron Valley, the Abu Dis dump, and other areas. No archaeologists were involved in the works which were probably conducted without proper oversight.[20] The State Comptroller’s report from 2011 discusses failings in overseeing the works and in the process of obtaining licenses to conduct development works on the Temple Mount in the years 2001-2007: “Significant failings were found in implementing oversight over most of the works during the period to which this report refers (2001-2007). These works were undertaken without any prior coordination with the authorities in charge with law enforcement at the Temple Mount and without receiving the necessary approval or permits as required.”[21]
It appears that amongst Israeli and Palestinian professionals no one questions the fact that antiquities were indeed destroyed in the course of renovating Al- Marwani Mosque, but each side interprets the developments differently. Israel views the destruction of antiquities from the point-of-view of Israeli law and a perspective that the Temple Mount is part of an area under Israeli jurisdiction. The Palestinians claim that not only had there been agreements between Israel and the Waqf concerning renovations of Al-Marwani Mosque, but that the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif should be regarded as a Muslim precinct subject to Jordanian law.[22] According to Jordanian law, the Jordanian Antiquities Authority does not have the right to oversee works by the Islamic Waqf at the Haram al-Sharif, and the same is true for the Israel Antiquities Authority.[23]
Al-Marwani Mosque (“King’s Solomon’s Stables”) is located in a space bordering the Hulda Gates and the Southern Wall excavations conducted by Israel in the years 1968-1982. Following the opening of the Western Wall Tunnels, the Waqf grew concerned that Israel was planning to open the Hulda Gates in order to convert “Kings Solomon’s Stables” into a Jewish prayer site.[24] From the point-of-view of the Waqf, the Jews had objected to the renovations at Al-Marwani Mosque not because antiquities were destroyed but because Jewish groups had designs on the space and saw it as an opportunity to build a synagogue in the sacred precinct.[25]
It is difficult to assess the extent of the destruction to antiquities at the Temple Mount for several reasons. First, in the absence of an archaeologist during the works, there is no one to offer a professional opinion on the matter. Second, the strong criticism over the destruction at the site is probably motivated by a desire possessed by many to see Israel gain full sovereignty over the Temple Mount. At the same time, the Waqf is working intentionally to strengthen Muslim hold over the Mount and its considerations are primarily political. Protecting antiquities is not one of their most pressing priorities. Yet, over the years many reports and articles were published discussing the extent of the destruction and the importance of the finds destroyed. It seems as though most of the remains that have been damaged date to Islamic periods, beginning with the Umayyad Dynasty (7thcentury) through to the Ottoman period (the 19th century). This is the opinion held by archaeologists from the Israel Antiquities Authority.[26] The assumption is that during the works conducted by the Waqf, some remains dating to the Second Temple Period were also damaged, but it appears as though these were few, and their quality remains unknown.[27]
In 2000 a “Public Committee against the Destruction of Antiquities on the Temple Mount” was established. [28] It succeeded to recruit an impressive list of Knesset members, public figures, leading writers and intellectuals, as well as figures identified with the Israeli Left, or people who were not involved in political activism[29] who had come out against the destruction of antiquities on the Temple Mount. Much of the criticism voiced by the committee focused on the destruction of remains from the Second Temple period. Although growing religious extremism and nationalism in Jerusalem has distanced many of the original committee members from the committee or from its activities,[30] the list of supporters can testify to the widespread interest amongst the Israeli public in the archaeology of the Temple Mount.[31]
The renovations in Al-Marwani Mosque led to growing pressure and criticism of the Israeli authorities and a demand for closer oversight over activities on the Mount. Although Jewish groups working to change the status quo at the Temple Mount had existed prior to the Al-Marwani renovations, since then, complaints about the destruction of antiquities have been used to galvanize support and serve as the main justification for those arguing to defend the Temple Mount and its heritage which, they allege, is being destroyed by the Islamic Waqf.[32]
It ought to be noted that from 2005 to the present day there is an ongoing project called “The Temple Mount Sifting Project” offering experiential activities for students and other visitors in an area outside the Old City, called “Tzurim Valley” at the foot of the Palestinian A-Tur neighborhood. It is conducted with the support of the Elad Foundation (a settlers’ foundation that also manages the visitors’ center at the Mount of Olives and the archaeological site ‘The City of David’). The sifting project is not an archaeological excavation and has no scientific value. Its stated aim is to discover remains from the Temple or other Jewish antiquities, but in practice very little earth has been sifted, and from every possible perspective it cannot provide credible information about the extent of destruction at the Temple Mount. This is an example of a project that combines concern for antiquities with a religious, national and political agenda.[33]
Changes in the status quo over the past year
During the summer of 2014 we have witnessed unprecedented developments in the activities of the Israeli authorities around the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif.[34] In August 2014 Israel began building a new temporary ramp for non-Muslim visitors to ascend the Temple Mount. Several days later, after Jordan had put pressure on the Israeli government, Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu gave instructions to dismantle the ramp and stated that the construction was undertaken without the knowledge of the Prime Minister’s Office.[35] The subject of constructing an entryway is a political issue that first emerged when the previous Mughrabi bridge collapsed in 2004. Since then, Israel has been trying to reach an agreement with the Jordanian government and the Waqf about building a new bridge.[36] The issue of the Mughrabi bridge is linked to the question of control over entrances and passages to the Temple Mount. As mentioned, today the temporary ramp is the only place through which non-Muslims can enter the Temple Mount and it is under the jurisdiction of the Israeli police.
In 2014 a sign was placed in an area called the ‘Little Western Wall’ requesting the public to respect the sanctity of the site. The Jerusalem Municipality had placed the sign even though the ‘Little Western Wall’ was never recognized as a holy site. The ‘Little Western Wall’ is a small section of the western supporting wall of the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif adjacent to the Iron Gate (Bab Al-Hadid), through which Muslims can enter the Temple Mount. It is considered the closest place to where the holiest of holies once stood where Jews can now pray. The wall measures 10 meters in length and in recent years it has been serving as a prayer area for Jews, particularly on Fridays. Allowing access to Jews creates friction between the Palestinians living near the site and the Jews who come to pray there.[37] The presence of Jews praying near the Iron Gate allows them to have an impact on events at the entrance to the precinct.
The struggle over who controls the gates to the Temple Mount has reached new heights following the decision by the Israel police to close some of the gates during the morning hours; especially during visiting times for Jews and non-Muslims (the consequence is to limit access for Muslims to the Mount). This issue is one of the main areas through which Israeli authorities are trying to affect change in the status quo on the Mount. Control over the gates means control over people entering and exiting the Mount, which can be justified by security needs or presented as something that does not undermine the status of the Islamic Waqf; in actual fact, it clearly signifies growing Israeli control over the precinct. In addition to closing some of the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif gates to Muslims, one must add the decision to build the Mughrabi Ramp without coordination with the Jordanian government or the Waqf. It seems that even if these activities were undertaken without the knowledge of the Prime Minister’s Office, they were carried out as part of efforts to strengthen Israeli control over the entrance to the precinct and are motivated by a conviction that, with respect to the gates leading to the Temple Mount, the time has come to create unilateral facts on the ground.
Conclusion and Lessons
The Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif precinct has seen many changes over the centuries, but beginning with the 8th century, and particularly after the defeat of the Crusaders in the 12th century, it evolved as a holy site for Muslims. The most significant changes occurred immediately after 1967 War: on the one hand Israel continued to respect the status of Islamic Waqf on the Temple Mount, but on the other hand it created the conditions for changing this status. The most well-known of these is Israel gaining control over the Mughrabi Gate and the establishment of a police department in the ‘Mahkamah’ building, which overlooks the Mount.
Immediately after the Six Day War Israel created a new area around the Temple Mount: The Mughrabi Quarter was destroyed, archaeological excavations took place all along the southern side of the precinct, and later underground excavations were conducted from the Western Wall plaza extending under the Muslim Quarter, and up against the western wall of the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif. During the excavations of the tunnels there was at least one incident when excavators penetrated under the area of the Temple Mount itself.
The most significant change took place in 1996 with the opening of the Western Wall Tunnels and the works on Al-Marwani Mosque, in the area called “Solomon’s Stables” underneath Al-Aqsa Mosque. Some Jewish groups who seek to convert that space into a Jewish place of prayer were motivated by this event to increase their struggle to expand Jewish presence at the Temple Mount. Alongside criticism of the destruction of antiquities at the Temple Mount there has been an increase in public delegitimizing of the Waqf’s role in administering the site. These dynamics escalated reaching new heights in the summer of 2014, with the attempt to rebuild the Mughrabi Ramp and modify the opening hours at the gates to the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif.
When reviewing Israeli involvement in East Jerusalem in general and in the area surrounding the Temple Mount in particular – i.e. the Old City and the village of Silwan – there can be no doubt but that Israel is interested in safeguarding and entrenching its authority in this area. The Israeli authorities and settler NGOs invest their best efforts in transforming Silwan into a tourist site and into the settlement of ‘The City of David’ (see Emek Shaveh’s publication From Silwan to the Temple Mount, 2012). At the same time, the Old City is undergoing unprecedented development of a nature which emphasizes the Jewish connection to Jerusalem and the Jewish people’s historic rights in the city. These, along with the years of neglect of the Palestinian population in the city and the solidification of the Israeli perception that the Old City of Jerusalem will remain Israeli for eternity, have prepared the ground for the demand to change of the status quo at the Temple Mount.
If Israel changes the landscape of the Old City and the nature of Israeli presence in the area surrounding the Temple Mount, then it should come as no surprise that the next logical step would be to affect changes in the precinct itself. Even if Israel officially distances itself from Jewish groups who ascend the Temple Mount and who are demanding a change in the status quo, its activities around the precinct and even in the Temple Mount itself attest to the fact that the situation at the Temple Mount has been marked by instability since 1967. The change we have witnessed in recent years is a rise in the number of people who are calling for full Israeli control over the Temple Mount.
Following decades of archaeological excavations, and with the increase in the political exploitation of the archaeology at the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif, it is necessary to take some steps to restore trust and cooperation between the sides. Alongside political steps, such as recognizing the special status of the Islamic Waqf and its right to manage the Haram al-Sharif without interference by Israeli parties, the sides must strive to work cooperatively based on UNESCO’s and ICOMOS’[38] international resolutions. These resolutions, which deal with the preservation and development of heritage sites, could become the basis for dialogue about antiquities and the importance of tradition, a step which could mitigate religious and political tensions.
The only way to preserve the religious and historic status of the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif over time is a political agreement that would recognize the precinct as one of Jerusalem’s most significant and central heritage sites. In this way, the precinct would be recognized not only as important to Islam but as one of the most important heritage sites in the world. Israeli society must accept that it has been a central sacred place for Muslims for a thousand years or more.
[1] Y. Mizrachi, “From Silwan to the Temple Mount – Archaeological Excavations as a Means of Control in the Village of Silwan and in Jerusalem’s Old City,” Emek Shaveh, 2013.
[2] Y. Mizrachi, “Jerusalem Underground: The Excavation of Tunnels, Channels, and Underground Spaces in the Historic Basin,” Emek Shaveh, 2011.
[3] M. Rosen-Ayalon, “An ancient source on the construction of the Dome of the Chain on the Temple Mount” (Heb), Katedra 11, 1979, pp.184-185.
[4] M. Hamilton, Mamluk Jerusalem: An architectural study, London, 1987.
[5] M. Rosen-Ayalon, “The Early Islamic Monuments of al-Haram al-Sharif, Jerusalem: An Iconographic Study”,Qedem – Volume 28, Jerusalem, 1989.
[6] T. Hirshfeld, “Discovery: Sections of the Western Wall were not built by Herod,” (Heb) Ynet, 23.11.11
[7] B. Mazar, “Jerusalem during the House of Herod in light of the excavations to the south and south-west of the Temple Mount” (Heb), Katedra 8, 1977, pp.29-41; O. Peleg-Barkat, “The Herodian Architectural Decoration in Light of Finds from the Temple Mount Excavations” (Heb), Jerusalem, 2007.
[8] R. Shani and D. Chen, “On the Umayyad Dating of the Double Gate in Jerusalem,” Muqarnas 18, 2001, pp. 1-40.
[9] B. Isaac, “Jerusalem from the Great Revolt to the Reign of Constantine,” pp.2-13; Y. Tsafrir, “The Topography and Archaeology of Jerusalem in the Byzantine period,” pp.323-330; Y. Tsafrir and S. Safrai (editors) The History of Jerusalem: The Roman and Byzantine periods (70-638 CE), Jerusalem: 1999.
[10] A. Elad, “The Temple Mount in the early Muslim period,” In Y. Reiter (ed.), Sovereignty of God and Man – Sanctity and the political centrality on the Temple Mount, Jerusalem: 2001, pp.57-109 (Heb).
[11] Y. Reiter, “Sanctity and Politics in the history of the Temple Mount,” Sovereignty of God and Man – Sanctity and the political centrality on the Temple Mount, Jerusalem: 2001, pp.5-13. (Heb)
[12] Y. Reiter and J. Seligman, “1917 to the Present: Al-Haram al-Sharif/Temple Mount and the Western Wall,” O. Grabar and B. Z. Kedar (eds.), Where Heaven and Earth Meet: Jerusalem’s Sacred Esplanade, 2010, pp. 251.
[13] N. Al-Jubeh, “1917 to the Present: Basic Changes, but not Dramatic: Al-Haram Al-Sharif in the Aftermath of 1967,” in O. Grabar and B.Z. Kedar (eds.), Where Heaven and Earth Meet, p. 275-277.
[14] Ibid, pp. 277-281.
[15] H. Geva, “List of Major Archaeological Activities in Jerusalem, 1967-1992,” Ancient Jerusalem Revealed, 1994, pp. 325-330.
[16] N. Al-Jubeh, “1917 to the Present: Basic Changes, but not Dramatic: Al-Haram Al-Sharif in the Aftermath of 1967,” in Grabar and Kedar Where Heaven and Earth Meet, p. 276.
[17] Ibid, p. 257
[18] G. Avni and J. Seligman, “The Temple Mount 1917-2001, Documentation, Research and the Preservation of Antiquities, Jerusalem,” 2001 (Heb); “Solomon’s Stables, the Temple mount, Jerusalem: The Events Concerning the Destruction of Antiquities 1999-2001” Atiqot 56, pp. 33-53.
[19] The works were conducted in cooperation with the Islamic Movement in Israel.
[20] J. Seligman, “Solomon’s Stables, The Temple Mount, Jerusalem,” ‘Atiqot 56, p. 42.
[21] State Comptroller’s report for 2010, ‘The issue of works at the Temple Mount’, 2011, pp.1843-1844.
[22] J. Seligman, “Solomon’s Stables, The Temple Mount, Jerusalem,” ‘Atiqot 56, p. 41.
[23] For more information about the lack of involvement by the Jordanian authorities in the administration of the precinct see Y. Reiter & J. Seligman, “1917 to the Present: Al-Haram al-Sharif/Temple Mount and the Western Wall,” Grabar and Kedar. Where Heaven and Earth Meet pp. 244-248.
[24] Y. Al-Natshe, The Al-Marwani Mosque – “Between Past Goals and Future Threats,” Tourism and Antiquities Administration – The Waqf, Jerusalem 2012 (Arabic).
[25] N. Al-Jubeh, “1917 to the Present: Basic Changes, but not Dramatic: Al-Haram Al-Sharif in the Aftermath of 1967,” in Grabar and Kedar. Where Heaven and Earth Meet, p. 281.
[26] J. Seligman, “Solomon’s Stables, The Temple Mount, Jerusalem: The Events Concerning the Destruction of Antiquities 1999–2001,” ‘Atiqot 56, pp. 33-53
[27] Ibid, p. 45.
[28] The internet site of the “The Public Committee Against the Destruction of Antiquities on the Temple Mount” (http://templemountdestruction.com/e/Home/tabid/160/Default.aspx, accessed 15 Dec, 2014)
[29] The Internet site of the “Public Committee Against the Destruction of Antiquities on the Temple Mount,”Committee Members.
[30] N. Hasson, “Intellectuals deny association with Temple Mount Pressure Group,” Haaretz, 19 February, 2014.
[31] See also the signatories of the petition, A call to prevent additional destruction of antiquities on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem (Heb.) (http://www.echad.info/templemount/letter.htm, accessed 15 Dec, 2014).
[32] Information about the Jewish groups active at the Temple Mount can be found in a report by Ir Amim and the Keshev Foundation: Y. Beer “Dangerous liaison – the dynamics of rise of the Temple movements and their implications,” (Heb) March 2013.
[33] R. Greenberg and Y.Mizrachi “Archaeology on a slippery slope: Elad’s sifting project in Emek Tzurim National Park,” Emek Shaveh 2012; G. Barkai and Y. Zweig “The Temple Mount Sifting Project,” New Studies on Jerusalem E. Baruch, Z.Greenhut, and A. Faust (eds.), 2006.
[34] Emek Shaveh, “Construction of a New Temporary Ramp Beside Mughrabi Ramp,” 15 August 2014.
[35] B. Ravid and N. Hasson “PM orders removal of wooden ramp at Temple Mount, following pressure from Jordan,” Haaretz, September 3, 2014.
[36] A discussion of the Mughrabi Ramp by Emek Shaveh in “Why is the Mughrabi Ramp a political issue?” 9 Sept, 2014.
[37] A. Eldar, “Jerusalem opens Muslim Quarter Jewish site to prayer, upsetting status quo,” Haaretz, January 14, 2011.
[38] International Council on Monuments and Sites
Introduction
The tunnels being dug in the Old City and in the adjacent Palestinian village of Silwan have reached the headlines once again. In the four years since 2007, the Israel Antiquities Authority (henceforth: IAA) seems to have been focusing its efforts and energies on the excavation of channels, tunnels, and underground spaces in the Historic Basin of Jerusalem (The Old City and its environs). Under the mantle of scientific research, the IAA is laying the groundwork for an ideological tourism with political overtones.
Although engaging in ostensibly scientific activity, the IAA provides no easily accessible information regarding the location and objectives of its excavations, the scope of its activities, or the nature of its finds. More often than not, the information about the tunnel excavations is provided after the fact, through a communiqué from the IAA spokesperson, and is not reported transparently during the excavation, as would be expected from a government service acting in the center of a city. Needless to say, such secrecy heightens the suspicion of irregularities, of harm done to archeological finds, and of the advancement of covert goals through the excavations.
The goal of this document is to provide a detailed picture of the state of underground excavations in the Historic Basin. We estimate that additional areas are being excavated, but they are not mentioned in this document, as we do not yet have enough information about them. It is our hope that in the future, the IAA will fill the gaps and provide the public with all the required information about its excavations in the Historic Basin of ancient Jerusalem. Such transparency is vital for the restoration of the trust of the public—including the Palestinian public and the international community—in the archeological activity being undertaken in the city.
Map
Legend
- Zedekiah Cave
- Western Wall Tunnels
- Ohel Yizhak Synagogue
- Western Wall Plaza
- Ophel excavations
- Givati Parking lot excavation
- Tunnels follows Sewage system and ‘Herodian’ Street
- ‘Gihon’s Tunnels
- Excavated by Ch. Warren
Underground excavations in Jerusalem: From 1865 to the present
This intensive interest in underground tunnels and channels, whether ancient or contemporary, turns the clock back some 150 years. At that time, the first European archeologists in Jerusalem, aided by laborers from Jerusalem and its environs, dug deep in the heart of the HolyCity in order to establish its ancient topography and the nature of the structures adjacent to the TempleMount. First and foremost among them was Capt. Charles Warren, R.E. In order to avoid the prying eyes of the Ottoman authorities, Warren dug vertical shafts at some distance from the walls of the TempleMount, and from there he continued to excavate in “galleries”—horizontal tunnels dug along the ancient walls. Warren dug alongside the Western Wall, from the area of Robinson’s Arch in the direction of Barclay’s Gate (one of the gates of the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif) and north of there, at points that today constitute part of the network of “Western Wall Tunnels”. He exposed an ancient gate attributed to the temple complex of Herod (1st century B.C.E.), which led to the Temple Mount itself.[1] Warren’s excavation project was also based on an 1862 map documenting the wells and water systems on the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif.
In addition to the excavations around the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif, Warren and his team dug in the adjacent village of Silwan, exposing important parts of a water system dated to Bible-era Jerusalem. Here too, the excavations were conducted deep underground, far from the authorities’ view. Among the things discovered there were shafts, tunnels, and channels—both naturally formed and man-made, that have become known as Warren’s Shaft.
For as long as Ottoman rule lasted in Jerusalem, excavations continued in the shaft/gallery format. In 1894–1897, archeologists F.G. Bliss and A.C. Dickie dug a sprawling system of channels and tunnels around MountZion and the Siloam Pool/Birket al-Hamra. Between 1909 and 1911, an expedition led by M. Parker renewed the investigation of the ancient waterworks of Jerusalem, hoping to find a subterranean passage from the Gihon Spring in Silwan to the heart of the Temple Mount, where, they hoped, they would discover the treasures of the Temple. Parker and his crew explored the Siloam Tunnel and Warren’s Shaft and dug new galleries,[2] but had to abandon the excavation following the disclosure of their attempt to bribe some Waqf guards in order to dig under the TempleMount itself.
This series of excavations, conducted behind the backs of the authorities, thus served to reinforce two central narratives regarding the archaeology of Jerusalem. The Western, scientific narrative that identified the “real” Jerusalem beneath the surface, while viewing the present inhabitants of the city as degraded, benighted remnants of the past who obscured the importance and destiny of the Holy City; and the Muslim-Palestinian narrative, which viewed archaeology as a tool of western imperialism aimed at undermining the Islamic presence in al-Quds and in the Haram al-Sharif.
Although the 19th– and early-20th-century explorers are considered the founders of the archaeology of Jerusalem, the science of archaeology developed rapidly and the “gallery” method of excavation was soon abandoned. The primary objective of any scientific excavation became the exposure of the historical layers from top to bottom, revealing the order of their stratification. Under British and Jordanian rule, the archaeology of Jerusalem emerged from the twilight, excavations began to take place by the light of day and successive layers of the city’s history were peeled away in an orderly fashion, from the surface and on down. Nonetheless, “underground” excavations did not entirely disappear, and it is possible to find heirs to those 19th-century OldCity excavators at different times and in various contexts.
Tunnel excavations following the Six Day War
Following the Six Day War, intensive archaeological activity began in and around the OldCity. Leading researchers from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem were among those to conduct extensive excavations: Nahman Avigad in the Jewish Quarter; Benjamin Mazar south of the TempleMount (the Ophel), and Yigal Shiloh on the southeast hill of ancient Jerusalem (the City of David). These excavations were conducted according to accepted modern methods, and underground systems were approached from above, revealing their access points and their relation to the overlying structures.
There were also, however, non-scientific excavations: In 1969, at the initiative of the Ministry of Religion, theexcavation of a tunnel began along the Western Wall, underneath the densely built-up Muslim Quarter houses that border the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif. This excavation continued until the beginning of the 1990s, and among other things re-exposed Warren’s Gate, the gate leading from the TempleMount, beneath the present-day city level. Although this was done under the auspices of a government ministry, this excavation was for many years a covert operation: it was unlicensed by the Israel Department of Antiquities (the predecessor of the IAA) and no record was kept of its finds.
In the first phase of development of the tunnel, visitors had to enter and exit through a single opening near the Western Wall. In 1993, the extension of the Western Wall Tunnels through to the Via Dolorosa in the Muslim Quarter were completed, although its opening was delayed until 1996. These were the early days of Benjamin Netanyahu’s first tenure as prime minister, less than a year after Yitzhak Rabin’s assassination and at the height of the political struggle with the Palestinian Authority for political control of East Jerusalem. Under the aegis of then Mayor Ehud Olmert, it was decided to open the northern opening of the tunnel, on the Via Dolorosa. The opening of the tunnel—“the rock of our existence”—provoked violent demonstrations and clashes between Israeli forces and Palestinians throughout the West Bank, in which dozens were killed and hundreds were injured.[3] With the cessation of the confrontations, the Western Wall Heritage Fund began to use the northern exit of the tunnel in order to increase the number of visitors to the Western Wall Tunnels. Thus the Western Wall Heritage Fund expanded the area of its control up to the heart of the Muslim Quarter.
Tunnel excavations under archaeological auspices
Since the mid-90s, the IAA has become the central and virtually exclusive organization conducting excavations in the OldCity and the Historic Basin. The IAA is responsible for the conduct of excavations from the Siloam Pool on the slopes of Silwan to Herod’s Gate in the northern wall of the OldCity.[4] Most of the excavations are done at the initiative of organizations other than the IAA (governmental and non-governmental), whether as salvage excavations done before construction work or as development excavations for tourism purposes.
As for underground excavation activities, these began, modestly at first, in the area of the Gihon Spring/‘Ein Umm al-Daraj (details below) at the request of the settler organization, El‘ad, and the Israel Parks Authority. The turning point came in 2004 when, on the southern slopes of the City of David archaeological park—located in the Wadi Hilweh neighborhood of Silwan—an ancient pool and the remains of a Roman road leading up from it toward the TempleMount were revealed.[5] At the same time, at the top of the Tyropean valley, extensive excavations began under the Ohel Yitzhak Synagogue adjacent to the Western Wall plaza.[6] For knowledgeable observers, it was clear that these two enterprises, although occurring at a distance from one another and seemingly separated by the walls of the Old City and the houses of Wadi Hilweh, were in fact connected by the ancient streets and drainage channels discovered back in the days of Bliss and Dickie. It seems likely that the idea was already broached to link up with those old excavations, both in a physical sense (the rediscovery of old tunnels) and an ideological one (the renewal of the long-abandoned method of tunnel excavations). Since 2004, the IAA has joined forces with the ideological organizations that are developing the area of the Western Wall and the City of David National Park and has begun to realize their plan to connect the City of David to the Western Wall plaza in a single underground system. The system includes excavated galleries, ancient drainage channels, and large underground spaces that were cleared of their contents. In 2005–2008, the IAA began to conduct tunnel excavations both in Silwan[7] and around the Western Wall—where tunneling was employed to connect between the Ohel Yitzhak Synagogue and the Western Wall Tunnels.
In the southern part of Silwan, in a lateral tunnel excavation, parts of the early Roman street documented in the 19th century by Bliss and Dickie were exposed.[8] Further on up the slope, above the level of this road, a shaft was excavated from above into Bliss and Dickie’s tunnels in order to reveal a covered stone-built drain. This drain seems to have run under the continuation of the same early Roman street. Well over the height of an average person, the channel runs beneath Wadi Hilwe Street and the adjacent houses, continues towards the Temple Mount excavations (the Davidson Center), continuing north beneath the Western Wall plaza.[9] It should be noted that the excavations in Silwan are funded by the El‘ad Organization, and conducted by the IAA as part of tourism development for the City of David National Park.
Since 2007, excavations have been taking place within the Western Wall Tunnels and in the spaces that extend westward to El-Wad (Hagai) Street, beneath the residential houses of the Muslim Quarter. Hundreds of square meters are under excavation, and the works involve piercing ancient walls and removing large amounts of fill, only some of which is methodically documented. These excavations are also to a large extent a return to structures studied by early researchers such as Warren, Hamilton, and others.[10] They revealed remains from almost every important period in the history of the city: a large hamam from the Mamluk period (Hamam al-‘Ein), remains of Aelia Capitolina (the Roman colony built on top of the ruins following the destruction of the Second Commonwealth in 70 C.E.), remains from the early Roman era, and more.
Ancient underground complexes
In the area of the Old City and the village of Silwan are a number of ancient underground complexes, hundreds or thousands of years old, that have been studied during the course of the 19th and 20th centuries. The best known of these are Zedekiah’s Cave (aka Solomon’s Quarries) in the OldCity and the Siloam Tunnel and Warren’s Shaft in Silwan. These spaces are an important part of underground Jerusalem.
Zekediah’s Cave
Zedekiah’s Cave is located under the northern houses of the Muslim Quarter. Its entrance is found outside of the walls, between the Damascus Gate and Herod’s Gate. The site was prepared as a tourist site decades ago and is currently under the jurisdiction of the East Jerusalem Development Company. Meanwhile, the Western Wall Heritage Fund is searching for funding for the development of the site.
Zedekiah’s Cave served as a quarry for hundreds and even thousands of years. The first evidence for the use of the quarry is dated to the 2nd century B.C.E., and it was apparently in use until the 15th century. This is one of the most breathtaking man-made caves found today in Jerusalem, and it was used during a number of periods, under many different rulers, and for a variety of purposes.
The Gihon Spring, Warren’s Shaft, and the Siloam Tunnel
In the ancient mound of Jerusalem there are two unique underground systems. The best known of these is the Siloam (Shiloah) Tunnel. The rock-carved tunnel, over 500 meters long, carries the waters of the Gihon Spring/‘Ein Umm al-Daraj—located in the Qidron Valley, between the two parts of the village of Silwan[11]–to the Pool of Siloam[12] at the southern end of the ancient mound and the Wadi Hilweh neighborhood. From the pool, the spring water runs down towards the houses of Al-Bustan. [13] The Siloam Tunnel system consists of a number of carved tunnels and channels, some of which still conduct water and some of which are dry. Studies of the tunnel date the first stages of its construction to the Canaanite period (18th century B.C.E.—the Middle Bronze Age IIb), and the last to the Kingdom of Judah (8th century B.C.E.—the Iron Age II).
Midway between the top of the hill and the Gihon Spring, above the man-made tunnel, lies a system of hewn passages connected to a vertical shaft of apparently natural origin. This is Warren’s Shaft, named after its 19thcentury discoverer, and its dating, purpose, and precise function are disputed.
In the decade and a half since 1995, excavations have been taking place around the Gihon Spring and the adjacent systems.[14] These excavations are conducted in the underground space beneath a residential structure and under the plaza facing the Silwan elementary school. Recently, excavations were extended by means of a tunnel dug westward, under a stepped public path. These excavations connect to the stepped section excavated in the 1960s by the archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon.[15] They revealed impressive remains of a fortification dating to the Middle Bronze Age.
Tunnel Excavations as Narrative
The IAA effects an interesting manipulation in its portrayal of the excavations in the Historic Basin. In its response to an Israel Supreme Court petition submitted by the residents of Wadi Hilweh, the IAA claims that the clearing out of the ancient drain underneath the houses in the village is little more than the rediscovery and cleaning of a channel whose existence has been long known.[16] This claim allows the IAA to emphasize that its tunnels are a fait accompli, and that its actions therefore do not pose any new threat to the houses above. At the same time, the IAA publicly advertises its discoveries as new and exciting. Another aspect is connected to the mythological status of past researchers: although some of their conclusions have become outdated, their adventurous spirit, their boldness and originality have turned their research and activities into an object of admiration. It thus becomes easy to embrace the old narrative that views archaeology as a bastion of Western science, and the opposition to it as a symbol of Oriental ignorance. This archaeological myth apparently enables the IAA to ignore changing methods and changing social and political realities. It comes as no surprise, therefore, that the IAA relieves itself of any responsibility toward the local Palestinian population, neither informing it of its intents, or consulting with it as work proceeds.
Once the Roman drain has been opened, visitors will be able to take a circular walking trail in underground Jerusalem, beginning (or ending) near the Western Wall. From the area of the Western Wall, the path will go through the Roman drain/road to the Givati parking lot, just a short distance from the City of David visitors’ center. There the tunnels of the Gihon and Warren’s Shaft can be accessed, and at their exit, at the Pool of Siloam, the underground part of the Herodian stepped street can be reentered, leading back to ancient drain that leads back up at the DavidsonCenter, near the Western Wall. Those who walk along this path are relieved of the need to confront the present reality of Jerusalem. The circuit is meant to create a visiting experience in a parallel, imagined, Jerusalem, among the remains of two periods: the Kingdom of Judah and the Second Commonwealth. These two periods are identified, in the Israeli narrative, as the most meaningful periods for the formation of Israeli identity and the connection of the Jewish people to the land. The end (or beginning) of the path near the Western Wall plaza emphasizes the close connection between underground Jerusalem and the Temple Mount, the most holy place for the Jews.
According to the version marketed to the public, the excavations in the village of Silwan exposed a pool, a street, and a drainage and sewage system, all dated to the 1st century B.C.E. (Second Temple period), and no more. These structures allow the visitor to relive the experience of making pilgrimage to the Temple in its glory, while also making palpable its destruction. In a new publicity film shown by the IAA on its website, the connection is presented between the ‘Herodian’ street in the Western Wall plaza on the one hand, and the tunnels and channels within Silwan, on the other. In this manner the aegis of the Western Wall extends itself to include the whole eastern ridge of ancient Jerusalem and the Wadi Hilweh neighborhood. The IAA and its patrons–the Elad Organization, the Western Wall Heritage Fund, and others—work hand in hand in order to diminish both Jewish history and the history of Jerusalem. All of Jewish history is compressed into the short periods of Israelite-Jewish sovereignty in Jerusalem, while cultural layers that are not associated with Jewish political sovereignty or with the sacrificial cult are ignored. The history of Jerusalem is stripped both of the eras that preceded the Kingdom of Israel, and of what came after it, when it became the HolyCity for the Christians and Al-Quds for the Muslims.
Moreover, the story told about the tunnels serves as a means of justifying Israeli settlement in the Palestinian village of Silwan and in the Muslim Quarter of the OldCity. The tunnels create an underground Jewish-Israelite city that transforms those in charge, i.e., the Israeli settlers, into inhabitants, and the disempowered, i.e., the Palestinian residents, into a temporary presence.
Summary and conclusions
The excavation of tunnels in the heart of the city entails, first and foremost, the exploitation of an ostensibly scientific-archeological means for the sake of literally undermining the lives of those who live above them. Since a large part of the conclusions of the archeological excavations conducted in recent years are based on 19th– and 20th-century excavations, their importance for scholarship is rather limited. The concealment of the actual scope of the works, the lack of scientific-archaeological rationale, and the emphasis on the emotional importance of the finds for the Jewish people, all attest to the political use that is being made of archaeology. The system of underground tunnels creates a parallel, ancient and unsullied city that pretends to represent the real Jerusalem, a Jerusalem preceding and disconnected from any conflict. This underground city renders the existing multicultural and conflicted city redundant while making control of the Historic Basin seem like a necessity in the eyes of the Israeli public, even at the cost of thwarting any political agreement.
The excavation of tunnels—one of the hallmarks of the 19th-century excavations in Jerusalem—has been revived in recent years. But this time around the excavations are not intended to deceive the authorities, but rather it is the authorities who carry them out, with the aim of deceiving the public.
The conduct of the Israeli authorities, in perceiving and portraying the archaeological finds in the Historic Basin as national property, should be troublesome for anyone who sees the city of Jerusalem, its past and its antiquities, as a place that must acknowledge and preserve the delicate and complex fabric of life of the city and the broad fabric of life of the cultures and peoples within it—in the past, present, and future.
Conclusion
The state of Israel has conducted more thorough archaeological excavations in the Old City than were ever attempted by any other government or organization. Despite this, archaeological activity continues to provide a central pillar in its plans to strengthen its political grip on the Old City. Archaeological activities have a clear influence on control over the Old City. Consequently, the Palestinians and various religious groups also see archaeology as a means to increase their control, or as a threat to their control. As the digging of the tunnels and the Waqf excavations show, political interests and the fear of archaeological discoveries often lead to damage to the research process and to the relics. The absurd result is that this colossal investment in archaeology is often coupled with destruction of irrecoverable sites.
There is an evident gap between the state’s inability to enforce the scientific standards expected in heritage sites, and its huge investment in archaeological projects. In addition, the political exploitation of archaeological projects is accompanied by glaring disregard for residents’ needs and for the importance of the sites to other religions and peoples.
Israel is not the first to find it difficult to balance the standards of research with the preservation of local heritage sites and the improvement of the multi-cultural residents’ daily lives. Jordanian rule, British rule and Ottoman rule faced the same problems, if in varying degrees, and the solutions they found were insufficient. One of the difficulties, no doubt, is the absence of balanced and professional bodies free of national and religious motivations.
We believe that only an international team or committee can cope with the competing interests of so many religious groups, while balancing between residential needs and the requirements of tourism. Only such a team, made up of professionals in the field of heritage-site preservation and conflict resolution, can contend with the various and extreme political interests, chart viable policy and methodologies, and monitor their implementation. International cooperation in Jerusalem is not a new idea; this booklet does not concern itself with an international presence or involvement in daily life – social welfare, health, security, etc. – but with issues uniquely suited to such an intervention.
We believe there is a need for a committee devoted to protecting, preserving and developing antiquities sites in the Old City and its environs. The committee must weigh residential needs and the religious and political situation, and balance the archaeological activity accordingly. Such a committee would provide a solution to a situation wherein archaeological research is led by religious organizations, extreme ideological groups, or even openly political government decisions that ignore basic residential needs. An international committee would highlight the antiquities and the Old City as international treasures, rather than as a national heritage site.
[6] H. Barbe & T. Dea’dle, “Jerusalem, Ohel Yizhaq Synagogue” Hadashot Arkheologiyot 119
[7] IAA Press release (in Hebrew): “Antiquities Authority’s excavations in the City of David reveal the primary drainage channel of the city” (September 10, 2007)
[9] N. Hasson, “Digging completed on Tunnel under old City Walls in East Jerusalem,” Haaretz, 25/01/11
[11] http://alt-arch.org/en/maps/ Excavation and Tourism Areas in Silwan, Site Number 8
[12] http://alt-arch.org/en/maps/ Excavation and Tourism Areas in Silwan, Number 11
[13] http://alt-arch.org/en/maps/ Excavation and Tourism Areas in Silwan,Number 14
[16]Israel Supreme Court 1308/08 – response of the IAA re: the drainage channel in Silwan
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Why is the Mughrabi Ramp a political issue?
September 9, 2014
In early September, the newspaper Haaretz published an article about the dismantling of a new Mughrabi ramp whose construction began in August. That ramp, like the existing one, was declared as a ‘temporary’ structure. Since the collapse of the prior Mughrabi ramp in 2004, the issue of constructing a new ramp has become politically sensitive. Israel claims to have a right and an obligation to build a new permanent ramp, while Jordan, in charge of the Muslim Waqf on the Temple Mount/ Haram al-Sharif, claims the ramp would harm the Muslim autonomy there.
The Mughrabi ramp is a wooden walkway built on stilts, which starts at the Mughrabi Gate and leads visitors to the Temple Mount / Haram al-Sharif. The ramp is located on the western side of the holy compound, where the Mughrabi neighborhood once stood. Officially, the only entry for non-Muslims (tourists and Jewish Israelis) is via the Mughrabi ramp.
The Mughrabi ramp collapsed in 2004 following rain and snow storms. Immediately thereafter, a temporary wooden ramp was built to allow non-Muslims go to the Mount. Israeli authorities began to establish a permanent new ramp, and to that end they negotiated with the Muslim Waqf and the Jordanians. Jordan’s status vis-a-vis the Mount is anchored in the 1994 peace treaty between Israel and Jordan. The agreement determined that Jordan had formal priority on the Mount. Israel recognized that Jordan would be the senior Muslim authority on the Temple Mount / Haram al-Sharif once a final settlement is achieved with the Palestinians.
In order to build a new ramp, Israel must coordinate with Jordan. In 2013 an agreement was signed between Jordan and the Palestinian Authority, highlighting their joint commitment to protecting Jerusalem and the holy places against “Israeli Judaization efforts”. The agreement recognizes the unique status of Jordan in Jerusalem’s holy sites.
From Israel’s standpoint, the body responsible for the establishment of the Mughrabi ramp is the Western Wall Heritage Foundation. The Foundation is a government body under the direct responsibility of the Prime Minister’s Office, and is managed by the Western Wall Rabbi. The involvement of government agencies and the high-level of oversight on the Western Wall Heritage Foundation, indicate the sensitivity at the Temple Mount area and the Prime Minister’s decision to be involved in operations around it.
The ramp’s construction is a politically charged issue because each side claims authority over it. Israel argues that because the ramp is located outside the Temple Mount, it should oversee the construction. Jordan argues that since the ramp leads to the Temple Mount, it should manage the works.
In 2011, UNESCO decided that all parties should be involved in the ramp’s design process, and that none should take any unilateral action that could affect the character of the site.[1]
After years of negotiations between the parties and the intervention of various countries such as the United States, Turkey and others, Israel and Jordan agreed on almost all issues related to the construction of a permanent ramp and its management. However, political tensions around Israeli aspirations to increase its presence on the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif, and mutual suspicion between Israelis and Palestinians, affect Jordan’s decisions and prevent a final agreement on the ramp’s construction. Any unilateral move is perceived as a violation of the agreements between the two countries. Nevertheless, Israel began constructing the infrastructure for the new ramp: From 2012 the Israeli Antiquities Authority has been conducting salvage excavations along the route of the new ramp and laying the foundation for the pillars on which it would be built.
As in many cases around the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif, the issue of the ramp itself has become part of the struggle over ownership and sovereignty: of who has rights to the Old City. It seems that the solution for the ramp’s construction is part of maintaining the status quo on the Mount. As long as the Muslim Waqf feels that its position on the Haram al-Sharif is undermined, it would be difficult to present the construction of the ramp as an action that is not part of a specific political goal.
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